Astronomy & Celestial Mechanics
the sky, computed
Concept

Galactic outflow — where it appears

Gas driven out of a galaxy by the energy or momentum of supernovae and active nuclei. An outflow carries away freshly made metals, so a galaxy's measured abundance depends on how much it lost as well as on how much its stars produced.

Named by 4 essays across one field — each of them below, with the objects they name alongside it.

A one-parameter model, and 9 times too many metal-poor stars. The metallicity distribution of long-lived stars near the Sun — the bars — against two models of how a galaxy enriches itself. The closed box is as simple as a model of a galaxy can be: gas turns into stars, stars make metals and return them, nothing enters and nothing leaves. It has exactly one parameter, the yield, and it predicts the whole curve. It gets the peak roughly right and the tail catastrophically wrong: 13.7 per cent of its stars fall below [Fe/H] = -1 against an observed 1.6 per cent, a factor of 9. This is the G-dwarf problem, and the reason it is an argument rather than a discrepancy is that the failure cannot be fixed by changing the yield: the yield sets where the peak is, and moving the peak to fix the tail moves it away from the data. What is wrong is a boundary condition. Let gas keep arriving — pristine, at roughly the rate it is being consumed — and the gas is never both abundant and metal-poor for long, so few stars form while it is. That is the second curve, with 3.2 per cent below -1, and it needed no new nucleosynthesis and no new parameter beyond the fact of accretion. The picture cannot show the thing that would settle it directly, which is the infall itself: the gas arriving on the disc now is a few solar masses a year spread over twenty kiloparsecs, and it has never been securely detected.

A histogram that says the box was not closed

The simplest model of a galaxy enriching itself has exactly one parameter and predicts the whole metallicity distribution of its surviving stars. The solar neighbourhood's disagrees, in a specific direction — and the failure is not in the nucleosynthesis but in a boundary condition.

galaxies · Chemical evolution A slope of 0.57 at the low-mass end, against the 0.59 and 0.24 two winds give there. Gas-phase oxygen abundance against stellar mass for star-forming galaxies. The solid measured curve is the relation found from electron-temperature abundances in stacked spectra, which rises as a power of mass below a turnover near 10^8.9 solar masses and saturates above it at 12 + log(O/H) = 8.798. The two model curves are a galaxy in equilibrium with its gas supply, whose metallicity is the yield divided by one plus the mass it ejects per unit mass of stars and one plus the dilution by the gas it must keep accreting. Only the ejection changes with mass. A wind driven by the energy of supernovae must lift gas out of a potential whose depth goes as v², so its loading goes as v⁻² and, with v ∝ M^(1/3), as M^(−2/3); a wind driven by momentum goes as v⁻¹ and M^(−1/3). Those set the limiting slopes far below the turnover, 0.67 and 0.33; at log M = 7.5, where dilution still matters, the drawn curves have slopes of 0.59 and 0.24. The measured slope there is 0.57. The dashed measured curve uses a strong-line calibration of the same galaxies' spectra; it sits higher, flattens sooner and has a slope of only 0.40 at log M = 9 — so which wind the data prefer is decided as much by the choice of abundance calibration as by the galaxies. Above the turnover every curve saturates, because a galaxy that ejects almost nothing keeps what it makes and its abundance is the yield, diluted.

The metals a galaxy keeps measure what it threw away

Small star-forming galaxies are metal-poor and large ones are not, in a relation tight enough to be a law. Read as an equilibrium between inflow, star formation and wind, its slope says how the wind is driven, its turnover says where galaxies stop losing what they make — and its redshift evolution says galaxies were poorer because they were still being filled.

galaxies · Chemical evolution A disc built from the inside out, with a gradient of −0.066 dex per kiloparsec at 12 Gyr. The metallicity of the gas, in solar units on a logarithmic scale, against galactocentric radius, at ages of 2, 6, 12 Gyr, for a disc in which every ring is its own box with infall: pristine gas arrives on a timescale that grows with radius, from 1 Gyr in the centre to 7 Gyr at 8 kpc, turns into stars on the depletion time of a Kennicutt law, which is shorter where the gas is denser and much longer below a threshold of 7 M☉ pc⁻², and keeps everything it makes. The slopes fitted between 4 and 14 kpc: −0.259 dex/kpc at 2 Gyr, −0.124 dex/kpc at 6 Gyr, −0.066 dex/kpc at 12 Gyr. The inner disc has had its gas early and turned it over many times, so it is near the yield; the outer disc is still accreting and forming stars slowly, so its gas is diluted and young in the chemical sense. At 8 kpc the model's present abundance is 1.16 of the yield. Every ring is independent here: no gas flows between them and no star moves, which are the two processes that real discs add and which both act to flatten what is drawn.

A gradient the old stars have walked away from

The gas in a disc galaxy is richer in metals near the centre than at the edge, by about six-hundredths of a dex per kiloparsec in the Milky Way. Two ingredients of disc growth make that slope, a disc that grows from the inside out makes it flatten with time — and the old stars that should carry the steeper history have moved several kiloparsecs from where they were born.

galaxies · Chemical evolution The angular momentum a halo has and the angular momentum a disc needs. The fraction of the mass with specific angular momentum below j, against j in units of the mean, for a halo's material — the universal profile fitted to simulated haloes, with shape parameter μ of 1.1, 1.25, 1.5 — and for an exponential disc with a flat rotation curve (black). Both have the same mean, as a disc that kept its halo's angular momentum would. They do not have the same shape. Below a tenth of the mean a disc holds 2% of its mass; a halo with μ = 1.25 holds 11%, and one with μ = 1.1, 15%. The halo also stops at a largest j, 4.0 times the mean for μ = 1.25, beyond which the disc still has a thin tail. A disc built from a halo's gas without any exchange of angular momentum would be too concentrated at its centre and cut off at its edge.

A halo with too much slow gas for a disc

A disc's size follows from its halo's average spin, and the average is all the simplest account of disc formation uses. The whole distribution does not match. A halo holds five times as much of its material at low angular momentum as an exponential disc can accommodate, so gas that kept its angular momentum exactly would build a dense centre, a thin body and a hard edge — and the bulgeless discs that are common in the nearby universe say that something removed a fifth to a quarter of the slowest gas before it settled.

galaxies · Galaxy spin

Named alongside it

The objects these essays reach for when they reach for this one.

Chemical evolutionGas infallDepletion timeEffective yieldAbundance gradientAge metallicity relationAlpha enhancementAlpha kneeBulgeCircumgalactic mediumClosed box modelCorotation

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