Astronomy & Celestial Mechanics
the sky, computed
Concept

Gravitational radius — where it appears

The length GM/c² for a mass M: about 1.5 kilometres for the Sun. Distances near black holes are measured in it — the horizon of a non-spinning hole is at two, the marginally bound orbit at four and the innermost stable circular orbit at six.

Named by 2 essays across one field — each of them below, with the objects they name alongside it.

The horizon and the orbit that cannot come back, against the hole's spin. Two radii round a rotating black hole, in gravitational radii GM/c², against its spin a from −1 (an orbit against the rotation) to +1 (with it), for orbits in the equatorial plane. The lower curve is the horizon, 1 + √(1 − a²), which is the same whichever way the orbit goes. The upper one is the marginally bound orbit, 2 − a + 2√(1 − a): the closest a body falling in from far away can pass and still escape back out. For a hole with no spin the horizon is at 2 and the marginally bound orbit at 4 — twice as far out. With maximal spin the marginally bound orbit comes in to 1.09 for a prograde orbit (a = 0.998) and moves out to 5.83 for a retrograde one. A star whose tidal radius lies inside this curve is swallowed whole, so the curve, not the horizon, is the line a disruption flare is measured against — and it moves by a factor of 5.3 with the spin.

The line a star is swallowed at is not the horizon

A star torn apart by a black hole makes a flare, and a star swallowed whole makes nothing, so the heaviest hole that can produce a flare is a measurement. That ceiling is set not at the horizon but at the closest orbit from which infalling matter can still come back out — twice as far out for a hole that does not spin, and moved by a factor of five by the hole's rotation.

galaxies · Tidal disruption How far the returning debris swings round, against the hole's mass. The relativistic advance of pericentre, per orbit, of the most bound debris from a disrupted star of 1 solar radius and 1 solar mass, passing at the tidal radius, against the hole's mass. Δω = 6π GM / c² a(1 − e²), and for these nearly parabolic orbits a(1 − e²) is about twice the pericentre, so the angle is set by how many gravitational radii the pericentre is — and that falls as the mass to the minus two thirds, because the tidal radius grows as the cube root of the mass while the gravitational radius grows as the mass. At 10⁵ solar masses the pericentre is 219 gravitational radii and the stream swings round by 2.5°; at 10⁶ solar masses the pericentre is 47 gravitational radii and the stream swings round by 11.6°; at 10⁷ solar masses the pericentre is 10 gravitational radii and the stream swings round by 53.4°. A light hole barely bends its debris's orbit, and a heavy one bends it by tens of degrees.

The debris that returns fastest lights up last

The debris of a star torn apart by a light black hole comes back within two weeks, in greater excess of what the hole can swallow than for any heavier hole. It should make the promptest flare, and it may make the slowest — because to shine, the returning stream has to crash into itself, and where it does so is decided by how far relativity swings its orbit round. Round a light hole the swing is a few degrees, and the streams meet only near the far end of their orbit, moving slowly.

galaxies · Tidal disruption

Named alongside it

The objects these essays reach for when they reach for this one.

Tidal disruptionAccretion discApsidal precessionBlack hole spinCircularisationEddington limitEffective potentialEvent horizonFallback rateHills massIntermediate-mass black holeKerr metric

All concepts