Astronomy & Celestial Mechanics
the sky, computed
Concept

Cosmic rays — where it appears

Charged particles arriving from outside the solar system at energies from megaelectronvolts to beyond ten to the twentieth. Their arrival directions are scrambled by galactic magnetic fields, so they carry composition and confinement history rather than a line of sight.

Named by 10 essays across 5 fields — each of them below, with the objects they name alongside it.

The field a collapse would arrive with, and the one it has. Field strength against hydrogen density, both logarithmic, over the eight decades between diffuse gas and a protostellar core. The steeper line is what perfect flux freezing demands: a sphere collapsing conserves both mass and flux, so B goes as R⁻² while ρ goes as R⁻³, and therefore B goes as the two-thirds power of the density exactly — an exponent with no free parameter in it. The shallower locus is what Zeeman measurements find: a flat branch at about 10 µG up to 300 per cubic centimetre, where the density is rising and the field is not, and a rise as the 0.65 power of the density above it. By the density of a core the two differ by a factor of 1, and a star built at the frozen-flux value would carry a field four orders of magnitude beyond anything measured on one. The flat branch is the important half: it says the gas is moving along field lines without dragging them, which is what gravity does to a cloud that is still magnetically supported, and it locates where the freezing has to break.

A field that would have arrived ten thousand times too strong

A collapsing cloud carries its magnetic field with it, and the arithmetic of that is not negotiable — the field grows as the two-thirds power of the density. Run it from a diffuse cloud to a protostellar core and the answer is four orders of magnitude above anything measured on a young star.

stars · Flux freezing The energy at which the sky begins to point. Gyroradius against energy for a singly charged particle, in three field strengths, with the thickness of the galactic disc and the size of its halo marked. A cosmic ray is not an image of anything: its path is a helix about a field line, and by the time it arrives the direction it came from has been erased. The erasure is quantitative. At 3 µG a proton's gyroradius equals the disc's half-thickness at 4.2·10¹⁷ electronvolts and the halo's radius at 4.2·10¹⁹, so below the first the particle is stored and stirred for tens of millions of years, and only above the second does it travel in something like a straight line. The measured spectrum has a break — the knee — at about 3×10¹⁵ eV, which is within a factor of a few of the first of those; the sky only starts showing structure above 10¹⁹, which is the second. Two features of a spectrum measured on the ground, both located by one straight line on this plot.

The energy at which a sky begins to point

A cosmic ray arrives from a direction that has nothing to do with where it came from. Its path is a helix about a galactic field line, and only above the energy at which that helix is bigger than the galaxy does the arrival direction start to mean anything — which is one particle per square kilometre per century.

galaxies · Cosmic rays The field nobody measured, and the reason the number is quoted anyway. The energy content of a radio source against the field strength assumed for it, both logarithmic. A synchrotron luminosity constrains only the product of the relativistic electron content and the field: a bright source can be many particles in a weak field or few in a strong one, and no observation of the radiation distinguishes them. The two curves are the two costs. Assuming a weak field is expensive in particles, because the particle energy needed rises as the field to the minus three halves; assuming a strong one is expensive in the field itself, which rises as B². Their sum has a minimum at 5.0e-5 gauss, and at that minimum the particle energy is exactly four thirds of the field energy — which is where the word equipartition comes from, and it is a property of where a curve turns rather than a statement about nature. The estimate is quoted because it is robust: the minimum-energy field goes as luminosity to the two sevenths, so an order of magnitude of ignorance about the luminosity is a factor of 1.93 in the answer. It is also, for the same reason, nearly uninformative — a number that hardly moves is a number that hardly measures.

A minimum that was mistaken for a principle

A radio source's brightness fixes the product of its particle content and its field, and nothing about the radiation separates them. What is quoted instead is the field that makes the total energy least — and at that field the particles happen to carry four thirds of what the field does, which is where the word equipartition comes from and why it is not a physical assumption at all.

starlight · Synchrotron radiation A radial wind from a rotating star draws a spiral. The interplanetary field out to 5 astronomical units, drawn as the Archimedean spiral it is. Nothing here rotates: the plasma moves radially outward at 400 kilometres a second and the field is frozen into it, so each parcel remembers the longitude it left from and the pattern winds up while the material does not. The pitch angle is arctan(Ωr/v), which is 47° at one astronomical unit — the radius where the star's rotation has carried the footpoint through one radian in the time the wind takes to arrive. The practical consequence is a matter of hours: a flare's particles follow the field rather than the line of sight, so the ones that reach a given planet left a longitude about 61° to the west of it. A magnetically well-connected flare on the western limb delivers a particle storm and a larger one at disc centre does not, and the difference is this geometry rather than anything about the flare.

The flare that arrives from somewhere else

The solar wind blows radially outward and the Sun rotates, so the field frozen into the wind is wound into a spiral making forty-five degrees to the radius at the Earth. Energetic particles follow the field rather than the line of sight, which is why the flares that deliver particle storms are the ones on the western limb rather than the ones facing the planet.

sky · Stellar winds A layer several times thicker than its heat can explain. The vertical density profile of the neutral gas layer, drawn twice. The narrow curve is what thermal pressure alone supports: an 8-kilometre-a-second sound speed against the vertical gravity of the stellar disc gives a scale height of 47 parsecs. The broad curve adds the three pressures that are not heat — turbulent motion, the magnetic field and the cosmic rays — which together roughly triple the total and, because the scale height goes as the square of the effective dispersion, thicken the layer by a factor of 3.1 to 145 parsecs. The observed half-thickness of the H I layer is about 150. The narrow curve is a real prediction and it is wrong, and what is missing from it is precisely the two terms that emit nothing: a field measured by Zeeman splitting and Faraday rotation, and a particle population measured by what it does to a detector on a mountain. A galaxy's gas disc is inflated by things that cannot be photographed, and the thickness is how the inflation is measured.

A disc held open by what cannot be photographed

Solve hydrostatic equilibrium for the galaxy's gas layer using its temperature and the disc's gravity, and the answer is a layer several times thinner than the one that is there. What is missing from the calculation is turbulence, a magnetic field and a population of cosmic rays — three pressures of comparable size, two of which emit nothing.

galaxies · Interstellar medium The distance a proton keeps its energy, against the energy. The energy-loss length of a cosmic-ray proton — the distance over which it would lose all its energy at its current rate — against its energy, computed from the photon density of the microwave background at 2.725 K and the cross-section for photoproducing a pion, which peaks at the Δ resonance. The dashed line is the loss to cosmic expansion alone, about 4,283 Mpc. Only above about 6.1·10¹⁹ eV does the combined loss length fall below a gigaparsec, because below that few background photons are energetic enough in the proton's frame to cross the 145 MeV threshold. Above it the loss length collapses: 144,327 Mpc at 3.16·10¹⁹ eV, 155 Mpc at 10²⁰ and 19 Mpc at 10²¹, where every proton is above threshold and the loss is set by the photon density alone. A proton seen above 10²⁰ eV has come from within a hundred megaparsecs or so — a horizon drawn by light at three kelvin. Pair production on the same photons, which costs about a gigaparsec near 10¹⁹ eV, is not drawn.

A horizon drawn by light at three kelvin

A proton above about fifty exaelectronvolts cannot cross the universe, because the microwave background, seen from the proton, is a bath of gamma rays that it loses energy to by making pions. The cut-off in the cosmic-ray spectrum sits where that horizon predicts. But a source that simply cannot accelerate particles any harder would put a cut-off in the same place, and what the particles turn out to be made of says the second explanation may be the right one.

galaxies · Cosmic rays What it costs to reach Mars faster than the Hohmann transfer. The total velocity change to go from a 400 km orbit round the Earth to a 400 km circular orbit round Mars (solid), and the heliocentric part alone (dashed), against flight time, for transfers that leave the Earth's orbit tangentially and cross Mars's before reaching their far point; both planets are on circular, coplanar orbits. The right-hand end is the Hohmann transfer: 259 days and 5.65 km/s. Shortening it to 200 days costs 0.82 km/s more; to 150 days, 3.4 km/s more; below a hundred days the cost climbs past twenty. The curve leaves the Hohmann point with zero slope — the cheapest transfer is a minimum, so the first days saved cost almost nothing — and turns steeply upward only once the transfer ellipse has become long and thin. For the fastest transfers the orbit-to-orbit cost is below the heliocentric one, because a burn made deep in a planet's gravity well adds more to the speed at which the craft leaves it than the burn itself.

The first weeks off a Hohmann transfer are nearly free

The Hohmann transfer to Mars takes 259 days and is the cheapest route there is. Because it is a minimum, the cost of going faster starts flat — ten days saved costs twenty metres a second — and only climbs steeply once weeks have become months. For a crew, the time is itself a cost, paid in radiation at about two millisieverts a day.

spaceflight · Orbital transfer The anisotropy each slope of escape predicts. The dipole anisotropy of cosmic rays diffusing out of a halo 4 kpc high, 3D/(cH), against energy, for diffusion slopes of ⅓, 0.5, 0.6, each normalised to the boron-to-carbon grammage at 10 GV — so all three agree at low energy and part above it. The shaded box is the range of dipole amplitudes measured between 1 and 100 TeV, a few parts in ten thousand to about a part in a thousand. At 10 TeV the three predict 0.0043, 0.014, 0.027: the slope that would let shocks inject an index of two overshoots the measurement by 27 times, and even Kolmogorov's ⅓ by 4. The normalisation of the prediction is uncertain by a factor of a few, through the arrangement of the sources and the shape of the halo; its rise with energy is not, because it is the same slope that the spectrum and the secondary ratio require.

One slope read twice, and the reading that disagrees

How fast cosmic rays leak out of the Galaxy depends on their energy through a single power, and that power is measured twice: in the falling ratio of boron to carbon, and in how unevenly the particles arrive across the sky. The first reading says one-third. The second, taken at face value, says the leak must be slower still — and neither leaves room for the spectrum shock acceleration predicts.

galaxies · Cosmic rays How far an electron can have come, by its energy. The distance an electron or positron can diffuse in its radiative lifetime, 2√(∫D dt), against its energy, for the diffusion coefficient fitted to the nuclei with slopes ⅓ and 0.6, and 1 eV/cm³ of field and radiation. At 100 GeV the horizon is 2.7 or 4.7 kpc; at 1 TeV, 1.24 or 2.95; at 10 TeV, 0.57 or 1.86. The marks are the distances to the nearest middle-aged pulsars and to the Galactic centre. Above a teraelectronvolt the electrons and positrons arriving at the Earth were made within about a kiloparsec — inside the Sun's own neighbourhood of the disc — and a feature in their spectrum is a feature of a handful of nearby sources, not of the Galaxy.

A positron that cannot have come far

A proton at a teraelectronvolt can wander the Galaxy for millions of years. An electron or a positron at the same energy radiates its energy away in a few hundred thousand, and in that time it can diffuse about a kiloparsec. So the rising fraction of positrons among high-energy cosmic rays is not a fact about the Galaxy. It is a fact about a few objects within a thousand parsecs of the Sun.

galaxies · Cosmic rays One production rate, many Suns. Global isotope production, as a fraction of today's average, over the modulation potential and the Earth's dipole moment. Each contour is one production rate — 0.85, 1, 1.2, 1.4, 1.7 times today's — and every point on it is a combination of Sun and Earth an isotope record cannot distinguish. Production at today's dipole of 7.8 × 10²² A m² and a modulation potential of 650 MV is reproduced exactly by a dipole of 10 with a potential of 449 MV. Over the last ten thousand years the dipole is thought to have ranged between about 6 and 11 in these units, the band across the middle of the plane. So a record of production becomes a record of the Sun only after a record of the dipole has been divided out, and the solar history inherits every error in the geomagnetic one.

A Sun read through a shield that also changed

Carbon-14 in tree rings and beryllium-10 in ice extend the record of solar activity ten thousand years past the first telescope, because the Sun's field keeps cosmic rays out of the atmosphere that makes them. But the Earth's own field keeps them out too, and over those ten thousand years it changed by as much as the Sun does over a cycle. An isotope record measures the two shields together, so the Sun comes out of it only after the Earth has been divided out — and every slow trend in the reconstructed Sun is, until shown otherwise, a trend in that division.

stars · Solar cycle

Named alongside it

The objects these essays reach for when they reach for this one.

Synchrotron radiationEquipartitionFlux freezingGreisen zatsepin kuzmin cutoffGyroradiusInterstellar mediumSpallationStar formationTurbulenceAerocaptureAir showerAlfven radius

All concepts